Borderless Africa? Historically, it has been paradoxically easier for non-African visitors to navigate the continent than for Africans themselves. Intra-African air travel can be significantly more expensive, with flights from Africa to Europe or the UAE often costing up to 50% less than those within the continent. Furthermore, studies reveal that African nations tend to engage in more trade with countries outside the continent than with each other.
These realities have fueled discussions and even jokes regarding human mobility in Africa, highlighting protectionist policies by various African states that impede travel. However, there is a growing momentum towards a more borderless Africa, driven by the African Union’s vision of increased intra-continental trade and the free movement of people, aimed at stimulating socio-economic and political progress.
A 2023 Visa Openness in Africa report indicated that only 28% of African travel routes allowed visa-free access for other Africans. While this figure represents an improvement from the 20% recorded in 2016, it underscores the existing challenges. Countries like Seychelles, Benin, Gambia, and Rwanda have taken the lead by abolishing visa requirements for all African citizens, seeking to capitalize on the continent’s market of over 1.2 billion people to boost their economies.
In October 2024, President Paul Kagame of Rwanda urged African countries to accelerate the removal of obstacles hindering the full implementation of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA).
He emphasized that resolving political, policy, and governance challenges—areas requiring minimal resources—is key to unlocking the benefits of integration. He stated, “Why shouldn’t there be free movement of people, goods, and services? Why shouldn’t people move freely across borders? Ultimately, we are brothers and sisters with the same needs. The lack of freedom of movement is something we must fix,” while also highlighting that issues of restricted movement sometimes exist within countries themselves.
The African Passport and Free Movement
The African Passport and Free Movement of People initiative, a core component of the African Union’s Agenda 2063, aims to dismantle restrictive policies that impede cross-border interaction among African citizens. A major step was the introduction of the African passport in 2016, designed to grant visa-free travel throughout the continent. While initially issued to diplomats and African Union officials, plans are in place to expand its availability to all African citizens upon the enactment of necessary legislation. However, previous deadlines for its broader rollout have been missed, exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic.
The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA)
Launched in 2021, the AfCFTA is designed to create a unified market of over 1.2 billion people, with an estimated value of USD 3.4 trillion. This makes it the largest free trade area globally since the creation of the World Trade Organization. The AfCFTA aims to liberate the continental market by facilitating free trade among African countries. However, cross-border trade remains nascent, with COVID-19-related travel restrictions slowing its progress.
The 2022 launch of the AfCFTA Guided Trade Initiative enabled countries that have finalized legal agreements and product offers to begin trading with each other. Over 100 products have been approved, including sugar, ceramics, processed meats, and batteries, facilitating trade between countries. For instance, Kenya and Rwanda have exported coffee and batteries to Ghana under this initiative, while South Africa has sent mining equipment and appliances to neighboring countries. These transactions are supported by certificates confirming the African origin of the products, thereby allowing reduced customs fees.
However, the AfCFTA faces challenges. Traders have reported a lack of clear communication among customs officers regarding tariffs and product certifications, resulting in goods eligible for exemptions often being subjected to regular fees. Additionally, there are concerns that AfCFTA favors larger companies and overlooks small businesses and informal traders, who contribute significantly to the continent’s economy. Furthermore, recent military coups and political instability have disrupted trade in affected countries.
Africa’s Open Skies Treaty
In 2018, Africa introduced the Single African Air Transport Market (SAATM), or “open skies treaty,” aimed at liberalizing air travel and reducing fares. This initiative strives to unify African skies and promote faster and more convenient travel. Thirty-five countries have ratified the treaty, which the African Union Commission estimates will generate 300,000 direct jobs and two million indirect jobs.
These continent-wide efforts are strengthened by regional economic blocs like the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the East African Community (EAC), and the Southern African Development Community (SADC), which facilitate free movement and work opportunities for citizens within their respective member states. For example, citizens of Rwanda, Uganda, and Kenya can travel within these three countries using only national identification cards. ECOWAS has been a model for free movement in Africa, established in 1979, which permits visa-free travel and the establishment of businesses within the region. However, the recent withdrawal of Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso from ECOWAS complicates the mobility dynamics. Mali is a significant transit point, and Burkina Faso is crucial for labormigration, especially to Côte d’Ivoire’s cocoa industry.
Anita Nkirote, a Kenyan political and development expert, stated, “These efforts have been key in enhancing integration from the regional to the continental level. Landmark interventions such as the African free trade area have shown that a borderless continent is possible. A continent where citizens can move freely, interact with each other, work, enjoy different cultures, and trade without restrictions.”
The Implementation Gap
Despite the ambitious vision, implementation of some initiatives has been slow. Treaties like the AfCFTA and SAATM require member states to enact domestic laws to legitimize and operationalize them. However, some nations, including Nigeria and South Africa, have been criticized for maintaining protectionist policies that limit trade with other African countries. Uganda and Tanzania have delayed signing the open skies treaty, citing concerns about the negative impacts on their national airlines.
“Such challenges are expected,” notes Nkirote. “Countries prioritize protecting their markets, jobs, or raise security concerns. While these concerns are valid, they should be addressed transparently at the continental level to allow an open integration process.”
African heads of state also acknowledge that restrictive policies harm the continent and its people. As Kenyan President William Ruto stated at a summit in October 2023, “When people cannot travel, businesspeople cannot travel, entrepreneurs cannot travel, we all become net losers.”
Stumbling Blocks to a Borderless Africa
Six years after the introduction of the African passport, its widespread rollout has yet to materialize. Even prominent figures like African industrialist Aliko Dangote, who holds an African passport, still face visa requirements in certain countries. Dangote expressed frustration in an interview after needing a visa to enter Angola. “It’s not about fees. When you say African Union passport, you should move everywhere free of charge,” he stated.
The open skies treaty has also experienced limited progress. Over-taxation by airlines and a lack of political will by member states have hampered its operationalization.
The 2018 Visa Openness Report demonstrates that countries that open their borders benefit across sectors, from tourism and investment to overall GDP. The report showed that 18 out of the 20 most visa-open African countries improved their rankings on the World Bank’s Ease of Doing Business Index and experienced growth in travel and tourism, GDP, and investment. Rwanda, for example, doubled its visitor numbers and increased its conference tourism by lifting travel restrictions.
Experts agree that integration and a borderless Africa are vital for achieving the continent’s social, economic, and development goals. However, they emphasize the need for transparent and structured processes to effectively realize this ambition.
“Regional integration has largely paved the way for a united Africa. The treaties and protocols are impressive on paper. The hurdle is implementation,” Nkirote concluded. “To realize this vision, African leaders must demonstrate political will by expediting the ratification of requisite laws and driving the integration agenda with integrity. A truly unified Africa requires the support of all Africans.”
